An Introduction to the Dunning-Kruger Effect

An Introduction to the Dunning-Kruger Effect At one point or another, you’ve probably heard someone speak with confidence on a topic that they actually know almost nothing about. Psychologists have studied this topic, and they’ve suggested a somewhat surprising explanation, known as the Dunning-Kruger effect: when people don’t know much about a topic, they’re often actually unaware of the limits of their knowledge, and think they know more than they actually do. Below, we’ll review what the Dunning-Kruger effect is, discuss how it affects people’s behavior, and explore ways that people can become more knowledgeable and overcome the Dunning-Kruger effect. What is the Dunning-Kruger Effect? The Dunning-Kruger effect refers to the finding that people who are relatively unskilled or unknowledgeable in a particular subject sometimes have the tendency to overestimate their knowledge and abilities.   In a set of studies testing this effect, researchers Justin Kruger and David Dunning asked participants to complete tests of their skills in a particular domain (such as humor or logical reasoning).   Then, participants were asked to guess how well they had done on the test.   They found that participants tended to overestimate their abilities, and this effect was most pronounced among participants with the lowest scores on the test.   For example, in one study, participants were given a set of practice LSAT problems to complete. Participants who actually scored in the bottom 25% guessed that their score put them in the 62nd percentile of participants. Why Does the Dunning-Kruger Effect Happen? In an interview with Forbes, David Dunning explains that â€Å"the knowledge and intelligence that are required to be good at a task are often the same qualities needed to recognize that one is not good at that task.†Ã‚   In other words, if someone knows very little about a particular topic, they may not even know enough about the topic to realize that their knowledge is limited. Importantly, someone may be highly skilled in one area, but be susceptible to the Dunning-Kruger effect in another domain. This means that everyone can potentially be affected by the Dunning-Kruger effect: Dunning explains in an article for Pacific Standard that â€Å"it may be sorely tempting to think this doesn’t apply to you. But the problem of unrecognized ignorance is one that visits us all.†Ã‚   In other words, the Dunning-Kruger effect is something that can happen to anyone. What About People Who Actually Are Experts? If people who know quite little about a topic think they’re experts, what do experts think of themselves? When Dunning and Kruger conducted their studies, they also looked at people who were quite skilled at the tasks (those scoring in the top 25% of participants).   They found that these participants tended to have a more accurate view of their performance than participants in the bottom 25%, but they actually had a tendency  to underestimate how they did relative to other participants- although they typically guessed their performance was above average, they didn’t realize quite how well they had done. As a TED-Ed video explains, â€Å"Experts tend to be aware of just how knowledgeable they are. But they often make a different mistake: They assume that everyone else is knowledgeable too.† Overcoming the Dunning-Kruger Effect What can people do to overcome the Dunning-Kruger effect?   A TED-Ed video on the Dunning-Kruger effect offers some advice: â€Å"keep learning.†Ã‚   In fact, in one of their famous studies, Dunning and Kruger had some of the participants take a logic test and then complete a short training on logical reasoning. After the training, the participants were asked to assess how they’d done on the previous test. The researchers found that the training made a difference: afterwards, the participants who scored in the bottom 25% lowered their estimate of how well they thought they had done on the preliminary test. In other words, one way to overcome the Dunning-Kruger effect may be to learn more about a topic. However, when learning more about a topic, it’s important to make sure that we avoid confirmation bias, which is â€Å"the tendency to accept evidence that confirms our beliefs and to reject evidence that contradicts them.†Ã‚   As Dunning explains, overcoming the Dunning-Kruger effect can sometimes be a complicated process, especially if it forces us to realize that we were previously misinformed. His advice? He explains that â€Å"the trick is to be your own devil’s advocate: to think through how your favored conclusions might be misguided; to ask yourself how you might be wrong, or how things might turn out differently from what you expect.† The Dunning-Kruger effect suggests that we may not always know as much as we think we do- in some domains, we may not know enough about a topic to realize that we are unskilled. However, by challenging ourselves to learn more and by reading about opposing views, we can work to overcome the Dunning-Kruger effect. References Dunning, D. (2014).   We are all confident idiots.   Pacific Standard.   https://psmag.com/social-justice/confident-idiots-92793 Hambrick, D.Z. (2016).   The psychology of the breathtakingly stupid mistake.   Scientific American Mind.   https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-psychology-of-the-breathtakingly-stupid-mistake/ Kruger, J., Dunning, D. (1999).   Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing ones own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments.   Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1121-1134. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12688660_Unskilled_and_Unaware_of_It_How_Difficulties_in_Recognizing_Ones_Own_Incompetence_Lead_to_Inflated_Self-Assessments Lopez, G. (2017).   Why incompetent people often think they’re actually the best.   Vox.   https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2017/11/18/16670576/dunning-kruger-effect-video Murphy, M. (2017).   The Dunning-Kruger effect shows why some people think theyre great even when their work is terrible.   Forbes.   https://www.forbes.com/sites/markmurphy/2017/01/24/the-dunning-kruger-effect-shows-why-some-people-think-theyre-great-even-when-their-work-is-terrible/#1ef2fc125d7c Wednesday Studio (Director) (2017).   Why incompetent people think they’re amazing.   TED-Ed.   https://www.youtube.com/watch?vpOLmD_WVY-E

Reading Comprehension for Presidential Elections

Reading Comprehension for Presidential Elections This reading comprehension focuses on Presidential elections. Its followed by key vocabulary relating to the US elections system. Presidential Elections Americans elect a new president on the first Tuesday in November. Its an important event that happens once every four years. Currently, the president is always elected from one of the two main parties in the United States: the Republicans and the Democrats. There are other presidential candidates. However, it is unlikely that any of these third party candidates will win. It certainly hasnt happened in the last one hundred years. In order to become the presidential nominee of a party, the candidate must win the primary election. Primary elections are held throughout each state in the United States in the first half of an election year. Then, the delegates attend their party convention in order to nominate their chosen candidate. Usually, as in this election, its clear who will be the nominee. However, in the past parties have been divided and choosing a nominee has been a difficult process. Once the nominees have been selected, they campaign throughout the country. A number of debates are usually held in order to better understand the candidates points of view. These points of view often reflect their partys platform. A party platform is best described as the general beliefs and policies a party holds. Candidates travel the country by plane, bus, train or by car giving speeches. These speeches are often called stump speeches. In the 19th century, candidates would stand on tree stumps to deliver their speeches. These stump speeches repeat the candidates basic views and aspirations for the country. They are repeated many hundreds of times by each candidate. Many people believe that campaigns in the United States have become too negative. Each night you can see many attack ads on the television. These short ads contain sound bites which often distort the truth  or something the other candidate has said or done. Another recent problem has been voter turnout. There is often less than 60% turnout for national elections. Some people dont register to vote, and some registered voters dont show up at the voting booths. This angers many citizens who feel that voting is the most important responsibility of any citizen. Others point out that not voting is expressing an opinion that the system is broken. The United States maintains an extremely old, and some say inefficient, voting system. This system is called the Electoral College. Each state is assigned electoral votes based on the number of senators and representatives that state has in Congress. Each state has two Senators. The number of representatives is determined by the states population but is never less than one. The electoral votes are decided by the popular vote in each state. One candidate wins all of the electoral votes in a state. In other words, Oregon has 8 electoral votes. If 1 million people vote for the Republican candidate and one million and ten people vote for the Democratic candidate all 8 electoral votes go to the Democratic candidate. Many people feel that this system should be abandoned. Key Vocabulary to electpolitical partyRepublicanDemocratthird partycandidatepresidential nomineeprimary electiondelegateto attendparty conventionto nominatedebateparty platformstump speechattack adssound biteto distort the truthvoter turnoutregistered votervoting boothElectoral CollegeCongresssenatorrepresentativeelectoral votepopular vote

Explain The ethical Issues when the board of directors must approve Essay

Explain The ethical Issues when the board of directors must approve plans for moving a company production facilities from a stateside location to an overseas location - Essay Example The utilitarian theory manifests its truest self here by discussing the happiness or the lack thereof, with concerns to the people who will lose out on their jobs and finances once the company decides to move its production facilities from a stateside location to an overseas one. The utilitarian theory will judge the exact amount of ethical considerations in line with the undertakings of the organization once it decides to change locations (Cornman, 1992). The utilitarian theory thus emphasizes a great deal on the workers’ understanding of the situation at hand and how they will cope up with the future implications of moving production facilities to an overseas location. The company’s leadership should balance the needs of the workers in line with the organizational goals, mission and vision. No one can take preference over the other and it is the duty of the organizational top management to comprehend how it can mesh the two factors to have a win-win situation at the very end. This will ensure success at all levels, as well as manifest growth and development at all possible levels and towards all workers who seem to miss out on the premise of working for this organization in the

Data Collection Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Data Collection Plan - Assignment Example Tied to this are problems with regard to effective teaching methods, and strategies to support Arabic learning. The basic methodology entails a comparison of my own teaching strategies and styles for my Arabic language class and those of another teacher in another class. The end goal is partly to be able to understand what motivates students to learn Arabic, the psychology that drives them to pursue Arabic language learning intently. The basic question I want to answer is as follows: What strategies are best for teaching Arabic to my students, and how do my strategies align with the motivations of my students to learn the language to advance themselves? To the question of the useful types of data, my answer is that data from my own classes, and the comparison with the data from the other class I have chosen, including learning outcomes and motivations as gathered from the students, ought to provide me with the right kind of information to answer the pressing questions of my research. To the question of the types of data already available, my answer is that data from previous studies, extensively tabulated, are already available to me, in the form of secondary research materials. To the question of the types of data I need to generate, the answer will be data on learning outcomes and similar data as from previous studies. ... n Qualitative Inputs Effectiveness of strategies for learning Arabic x x x x Student Motivations for Learning Arabic x x x x Areas for Improvement in Teaching and Learning Styles X x x x Fit of Teaching Strategies to Student Aspirations and Motivations for Learning Arabic x x x x III. Narrative Connecting Matrix to Starting Point My matrix details the fundamental aims of my action research, and those aims are noteworthy as far as I am concerned for their being open-ended and lending themselves to being answered in a broad sense. I think there ought to be a strong link between the teaching strategies and the motivations and inclinations of students for learning the Arabic language. Taking off from the interesting answer that I got from a student, where the student sees Arabic as a road to material prosperity, it is clear to me that some of the strategies ought to focus on being able to give the students a functional understanding and mastery of the Arabic language. This functional app roach lends itself to being measured via the learning outcomes of the students, and the learning outcomes of the students in the other class. The comparison ought to yield interesting insights into what works and what does not work as far as teaching styles is concerned. Also, as far as learning outcomes are concerned, it is not enough that the students pass the tests to measure learning, but that the tests should be measuring the right kinds of language competencies. In this regard, it is important that my class and the other class should agree on some baseline language course contents that should be similar for both classes. Both should focus on functional learning, and the teaching of Arabic that has real-world applications, such as in being able to transact business and being able to

Managements incentives for establishing and maintaining strong internal control

Managements incentives for establishing and maintaining strong internal control 25. Discuss managements incentives for establishing and maintaining strong internal control. Before we start answer this question, let us understand what the definition of internal control is. Internal control is designed and implemented by an entitys management, those charge with governance of the entity, and other personnel to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives. In addition, internal control is also can be refer to a process wherein the structure of the organization, the information system and authority are designed in such a way that it can helps the organization achieve its objectives and goals. (Bhattacharyya, August 2010) Internal control plays an important role in how management meets its stewardship or agency responsibilities. For example, internal control for a bank is the systems, policies, procedures, and processes effected by the board of directors, management, and other personnel to safeguard bank assets, limit or control risks, and achieve a banks objectives (Internal Control Comptrollers Handbook January 2001). A system of str ong internal control is the backbone of an associations management program. Strong internal control may helps a company to meet their objectives and goals, and to maintain a healthy, successful operations.For a bank, Good internal control can help a bank to avoid surprises and achieve its objectives. After we understand the internal control, let us see the managements incentives for establishing and maintaining strong internal control. There are few management incentives such as provide safeguard of assets and company records, effectiveness and efficiency of operations, prevention and detection of fraud and error, compliance with applicable law and regulation, avoid wastage of resources, risk management systems are effective and decreased risk of damage to the associations reputation. First, the managements incentive for establishing and maintaining strong internal control is to ensure company records and assets can be properly safeguard. A strong internal control can ensure that asset was not been stolen and certificates or company records are proper keeping. Then, a proper safeguard of company records and assets can generate reliable information for the company because the records will not easily be manipulated. Besides, Management also needs reliable information to ensure the fairness of financial report. It can reduce the problem between the principal and agent. So, what is mean by principal and agent? Actually, principal is referring to absentee owner such as shareholder and agent refers to manger who is working in company. The problem is information asymmetry and conflicts of interest are occurring between themselves. This is because manager has more information about true financial position than shareholder. Moreover, they are different objectives in someti mes, so it will lead to conflict of interest. For example, the goal of shareholder is to obtain higher dividend from the company which they invest. However, the goal of manager is to maximum the profit of the company. Therefore, they will be a conflict such as whether using the excess earning to maximum the dividend for each of the shareholder or increase their market share by increases the advertising. It will lead to the problem between shareholder and manager, because the shareholder did not know whether the manager has done a correct or win-win decision. Then, they did not know the financial statement have incurred error or fraud or not. However, a strong internal control may ensure a safeguard of companys records and assets and it will increase the trustiness to the company. Then, decrease the problem between agent and principals. Besides this, reliable information is important to make a good decision to a company. If the information system does not provide reliable information , management may be unable to make quick and informed decisions such as product pricing, profit information and cost of production. It is important that the top management is generated with accuracy information, as they rely on these data to make important and critical decisions. Therefore, a strong internal control is necessary in order to make financial information transparent and accessible to the managers or decision makers. Second, the managements incentive for establishing and maintaining strong internal control is to have an effectiveness and efficiency of operations in a company. Effective of internal controls can be sure that all duties are being completed according to standards, rules and all quotas are being met. However, efficiency of internal control is very important to the achievement of sustainable competitive advantage and the maximization of profitability. Operational procedures, best-practice and performance reviews are effective internal controls of efficiency. (Ingram, eHow Contributing Writer) A strong internal control increases the effectiveness and efficiency of operations, reduces the risk of asset loss, and helps to ensure compliance with laws and regulations. Third, the managements incentive for establishing and maintaining strong internal control is to prevent and detect of fraud and error in company. Error is unintentional misstatements make by staff or manager such as making mistakes in gathering or processing financial data used to prepare financial statements. Then, fraud is intentional misstatements make by staff or manager such as manipulation, falsification, or alteration of accounting records or supporting documents used to prepare financial statements. Therefore, a strong internal control can prevent and detect the error and fraud. For example, segregation duty between record shipping inventory and calculate inventory physically can prevent theft or stolen of inventory occur. Besides, a proper accounting information system can prevent the error or fraud, such as sales clerk only can access and key in the information about the sales and account receivables only. Therefore, the sales clerk cant access to cash account in order to c reate a fictitious customer. Moreover, monthly bank reconciliation can check the mathematical accuracy of the bank reconciliation working paper and agree the balance per the books to general ledger to detect the error or fraud in account bank. Next, the managements incentive for establishing and maintaining strong internal control is to compliance with applicable law and regulation. Following law and regulation set by government require huge investments, especially that of time. Therefore, a strong internal control is necessary in order to avoiding legal consequences by follow the rule and regulation. That mean, it can reduces or avoid the costs which may have to occur if the company dont follow rules. Then, the managements incentive for establishing and maintaining strong internal control is to avoid wastage of resources. A strong internal control can helps company avoiding wastage of precious resources, besides increasing efficiency. It is because maximize the profits or income by utilization the resources is one of the method of efficiency. Strong internal controls can avoiding wastage of resources like an effective accounting information system can ensure the reliability and appropriate of the information for avoid to making an inefficiency and inaccurate decision and wasted asset of the company in investment in that decision such as wasted cash or establish a useless debt for an ineffective investment. The managements incentive for establishing and maintaining strong internal control is to making risk management systems effective. An entitys risk assessment process is its process of identifying, evaluating, and responding to the identified business risk. For example, mobile phone company such as Nokia always facing business risk not because of its competitive environment only but rapid changing technology is also a main reason. To suit for the customer trend and favourite, Nokia facing business risks that are always need to make investment in Research and Development Department to design a new model and rapid upgrade their product. However, not all the mobile phone produce by Nokia will be the favourite of the customer and making a profit, so a strong internal control is important to assess the business risk and reduce the business risk to an acceptable level. The last managements incentive for establishing and maintaining strong internal control is decreased risk of damage to the associations reputation. It is because a strong internal control can produce a reliable financial statement, making operating procedures more effective and efficiency, prevent and detect the error or fraud and compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Therefore, the financial report will be more credibility and decreased risk of damage to the associations reputation. Last but not least, after we review the managements incentive for establishing and maintaining strong internal control, we can conclude that a strong internal control is very important to every company to achieve their businesss goal, such as provide a safeguard of records and assets or making an effectiveness and efficiency of operations. Therefore, a strong internal control is one of the factors that ensure the company may successful also.

Militarism and Border Violence

War exposes the operation of sex and race in the construction of a nation as war enables us to perceive the process of securing and creating territories through the use and implementation of particular values and standards of perceiving reality. For example, the division between the battlefront and home front along with the emphasis on the action in the trenches creates and highlights gendered boundaries, which are equivalent to the division between the protector and the protected. Furthermore, the social territories formed during and after the war highlights the use of ethnocentric viewpoints, which leads to racism and the exploitation of bodies. The mode in which these events are possible can be read by stating that the current events within the world are affected by the different modes in which a hegemonic groups’ power becomes visible in a society. Within this perspective, one may state that the current oppression that women experience is caused by the patriarchal views heeded by those who directly affect world politics. Such may be the case; however it is still possible to state that even though certain nations hold control of current world politics, equal ground has been given to the different agents within society. Women, in this perspective, may be seen as possessing freedom in so far as they are no longer placed within the stereotypes of the feminine. However, the case is not that simple. Consider for example a woman in a Third World Country who is granted the recognition of her independence. Although this woman is â€Å"free†, she is still placed within the stereotype of a Third World woman who needs to be further emancipated from her â€Å"barbaric† culture. In order to resolve such a conflict let us consider Michel Foucault’s conception of power. According to Foucault, power is not an institution. It refers to the strategic situations within a particular society. It cannot be located in a particular or specific entity such as the state’s sovereign, it is everywhere and nowhere at the same time manifesting its existence in the different forms of repressions present within society. Repression, however, should not be seen as an entirely negative aspect. Repression is not a form of paralysis; it should not be seen as a freezing of possibilities for all forms of repression enables. Consider for example a Muslim woman who is forced by social norms to wear a burqa. According to Abu-Lughod the act of wearing a burqa should not be seen as repressive in character since Muslim women choose to wear it for it is a basis of their social status. A Muslim woman who does not wear a burqa for instance does not come from a reputable family or she is a woman who participates in the trade of the flesh. Abu-Lughod states that the benevolent father image portrayed by America towards the Palestinian women misconstrues the Palestinian women’s cultural background. Such an ethnocentric perspective merely shows America’s disrespect of other cultures. In the above example, one can see how a repressive state may have allowances, which the individual may use to inch towards her freedom, which in these terms refers to the control of the power relations that is dominant in that particular period. Palestinian women’s opposition of the predominant consciousness regarding women’s oppression can best be portrayed using the notion of oppositional consciousness. Oppositional consciousness refers to the subversive use of tools of repression. This is evident in the practice of Palestinian women in the United States who choose to wear their burqa despite their freedom to dispose of it within foreign grounds. It might be stated that such an action is only possible since there are no threats placed upon the individual’s life when she refuses to adhere to the practice in a different place. However, it can be argued that as long as their actions are explicitly stated to stand for a particular cause notion of oppositional consciousness still follows. Oppositional consciousness, however, becomes problematic when one considers that an individual is predisposed to think in a particular way based upon his or her ontological and epistemic background. In other words, is it really possible for a woman to obtain freedom when she has been conditioned or predisposed to think in a particular way? Specifically, in a way wherein she considers the view of the patriarch to be the basis for truth compared to the view of her fellow women. This tendency is apparent in the current contentions that feminism experiences with women outside the academe. As an answer to the events, which occurred after the September 11 bombing, Bachetta, together with other transnational feminists stated their disapproval towards the violent effects of Bush’s â€Å"messianic mission† to redeem the world from all forms of â€Å"terror† evident in the so called â€Å"backward† and â€Å"barbaric ways† of those who reside in the Middle East. According to S.R., a Palestinian woman, though she agrees with the general appeal of feminists to stop the war, she disapproves of the way that feminists present Palestinian women in general. According to S.R., liberation should not be forced on an individual. It is an instinct, which presents itself on its own way. The general contention regarding transnational feminists appeal is their ethnocentric tendency to perceive other women who refuses to heed their call as â€Å"oppressed† individuals. However, it may be argued that transnational feminists notion of feminism may be salvaged if one considers that their emphasis lies on the need for women to be freed from their political double bind apparent in their marginalization as women and in the use of their bodies as tools for the assertion of power. Instances like these can be seen in Falcon’s analysis of the militarized rape cases, which occurred in the US-Mexico border. Sylvanna Falcon, in her paper â€Å"‘National Security’ and the Violation of Women’s Bodies† reiterates these claims as she discussed the cases of rape committed at the US-Mexico border. Falcon argued that the rape and harassment of women in the said border presents an example of â€Å"the hypermasculine nature of war and militarism† wherein sexual assault is used as a military strategy which aims to â€Å"dominate women and psychologically debilitate people viewed as the ‘enemy’† (120). According to Falcon, what occurs in the border is a form of â€Å"national security rape and systematic rape†. â€Å"National security rape† refers to the sexual abuse of women committed for the sake of â€Å"bolstering (a soldier’s) nervous nerves†. â€Å"Systematic rape†, on the other hand, refers to the use of rape â€Å"as an instrument of open warfare† (121). It should be noted that these women are placed in a political double bind. Besides being displaced individuals and forced migrants, they are considered as threats to the state as the state conveniently forgets that these individuals are products of the internal repressions caused by the war. One might presume that their existence within the middle ground grants them a special immunity since they are freed from the hegemonizing tendencies of the state. In fact, Falcon herself recognizes their positionality as providing them with a space that enables them to counter the system’s legitimacy. This idea becomes her springboard for the possibility of holding the United States accountable for the human rights violations committed in the US-Mexican border. However, it is important to consider the tendency of â€Å"universal rights† to be particularistic in character, in other words, applicable to others only-particularly to the enemy of those who hold the position of power. In the 1990’s a new norm has developed in international affairs. This refers to the right of self designated â€Å"enlighted states† to resort to force in order to protect humanity†. The guiding principle behind this exists in the malleability of norms and its tendency to be placed in alignment with the interests of the powerful. An example of this is apparent in Nuremberg trials wherein an act is considered â€Å"criminal† if and only it is not one, which the victor committed. The operative definition of a crime or any form of injustice within the universal jurisdiction would be an act, which only the vanquished foe committed. A more recent example can be seen in the â€Å"war against terror† of the United States. According to the US Code and Army Manual, terrorism refers to â€Å"the use, or threat, of action which is violent, damaging, or disrupting, and is intended to influence the government or intimidate the public and is for the purpose of advancing a political, religious, or ideological cause† (qtd from George, 18). From this definition, it follows that the sexual assaults, which occur at the US-Mexico border are in themselves acts of terrorism since they are enacted in order to reinforce the United States’ hold on the territory through causing damages and disruptions in women’s lives. This presents us with the self- negating tendencies of the United States’ â€Å"messianic mission† of grafting democracy along with its ideals of freedom and liberty to the rest of the world. Although it might be stated that United States may be held accountable for it offenses against the national community, the possibility of the event is dependent upon the change of the power relations that dominate the national society. Such a change, on the other hand is dependent upon women’s recognition of their positions as transnational members of the global community capable of mobilizing against the capitalist movements in the world. Works Cited: Falcon, Sylvanna.   â€Å"‘National Security’ and the Violation of Women: Militarized Border Rape at the U.S. Mexico Border.† George, Alexander.   Western State Terrorism.   Polity: Blackwell, 1991.         

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